Evidence-Based Reviews

Taking the spice route: Psychoactive properties of culinary spices

Current Psychiatry. 2014 April;13(4):21-32

References

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19. Weil A. The use of nutmeg as a psychotropic agent. Bull Narc. 1966;18(4):15-23. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1966-01-01_4_ page003.html. Accessed March 5, 2013.
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22. Shah AM, Calello DP, Quintero-Solivan J, et al. The not-so-nice spice: a teenage girl with palpitations and dry mouth. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(12):1205-1207.
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28. Malini T, Arunakaran J, Aruldhas MM, et al. Effects of piperine on the lipid composition and enzymes of the pyruvate-malate cycle in the testis of the rat in vivo. Biochem Mol Biol Int. 1999;47(3):537-545.
29. Zaugg J, Baburin I, Hering S, et al. Identifying GABA_Areceptor ligands in black pepper by activity profiling, LC-TOFMS, and offline microprobe NMR. Planta Med. 2009; 75(9):888-889. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1234276.
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Short-term effects of vanillin—a major component of vanilla—include a feeling of relaxation and reduced stress; long-term use can produce an antidepressant effect.¹ There are no reports of vanilla abuse to achieve these effects; however, patients might abuse vanilla extract because of its alcohol content (up to 35% ethanol).²⁵

Fennel
The essential oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) can be neurotoxic and epileptogenic. Skalli and colleagues recently reported a case of seizure induction in a young woman after ingesting cakes containing fennel oil.²⁶ Fennel oil also has been reported to have significant interaction with the fluoroquinolone-type antibiotics. Be aware of adverse effects associated with fennel ingestion; question patients if atypical seizures or reactions to antibiotics occur.²⁷

Spices such as fennel, dill, cinnamon, saffron, and anise also contain psychoactive substances that are chemically similar to myristicin, which can induce sedation, stimulation, or hallucinations.⁷

Black pepper
Piperine, which gives black pepper (Piper nigrum) its spiciness, enhances thermogenesis of lipid metabolism, accelerates energy metabolism, and increases serotonin and endorphin production in the brain.28 Black pepper is reported to potentiate γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor subtypes,²⁹ and could present possible applications for treating insomnia, epilepsy, and anxiety disorders.

Cloves
Non-culinary uses of clove (Syzygium aromaticum, a tree in the myrtle family) include flavored cigarettes. However, in 2009 clove cigarettes were banned in the United States as part of a public policy to reduce the number of children who start smoking.³⁰ Eugenol, which constitutes as much as 90% of the essential oil extracted from cloves (and is responsible for the aroma), can cause hepatotoxicity³¹ and palpitations³²; it can be toxic in quantities as low as 5 mL.³³ Eugenol is present in other spices, such as nutmeg and cinnamon, and has been reported to have sedative properties.¹

Mace
Mace is made from the covering of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) seeds. It has a strong aroma resembling that of nutmeg. Whole mace contains 4% to 14% of a volatile oil similar to that found in nutmeg. Because mace contains the same oils that make nutmeg psychoactive1 in excessive amounts—although nutmeg seeds are more potent—be aware of the psychoactive potential of mace.

CinnamonCassia cinnamon (Cinnamomum aromaticum) is spicier and tarter than Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), which has a more flowery aroma. The 2 types of cinnamon can be distinguished by their different chemical composition. Ceylon cinnamon contains eugenol and benzyl benzoate; cassia cinnamon contains coumarin.³ Eugenol is reported to have sedative effects.¹ Coumarin is a precursor molecule in the synthesis of a number of synthetic anticoagulant pharmaceuticals, including coumadin. Because of the toxic component of coumarin, European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia.³⁴ There are no reports of side effects arising from the occasional use of cinnamon as a spice.

In a study by Frydman-Marom et al,³⁵ cinnamon extract (CEppt) was found to act on the CNS by inhibiting development of Alzheimer’s disease in animal models.

Asarone
Asarone is found in the Asarum family of spices that includes Acorus calamus. Asarone is chemically similar to mescaline. Although anecdotal reports indicate that A. calamus is a hallucinogen, research shows no evidence that it contains hallucinogenic substances.³⁶ Han et al³⁷ reported an antidepressant effect with the essential oil and asarones for the rhizomes of Acorus tatarinowii. In animal studies, asarone was found to reduce spontaneous motor activity, and even in low doses, reduced anxiety without decreasing acuity of perception.³⁸

Ginger
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is regarded as a sedative, general stimulant, and aphrodisiac.^1,4,5Its main constituents are phenolic compounds such as gingerols and shogaols, and sesquiterpenes such as zingiberene.⁴ Ginger is an inhibitor of thromboxane synthetase, a property shared by tricyclic antidepressants.³⁹

Research indicates that 9 compounds found in ginger may interact with the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor, suggesting a possible mechanism for reducing anxiety.⁴⁰ A study by Nievergelt et al⁴¹ indicates that by binding to human serotonin receptors, ginger might influence GI function. Ginger extract contains a cholinergic and spasmogenic component, which provides a mechanistic insight for the prokinetic action of ginger.⁴⁰

Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) has been investigated for possible benefit in Alzheimer’s disease⁴²; research into curcumin, the active substance of turmeric, is increasing. Although the original report was retracted after publication, curcumin was reported to selectively bind to human cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1) with nanomolar affinities and to function as an antagonist/inverse agonist.⁴³ However, Gertsch et al⁴⁴ found that curcumin did not interact functionally with the CB1 receptor, although this compound appears to share ability of the CB1 receptor inverse agonist.

Galangal
Major constituents identified in the galangal (or galanga) rhizome and leaf oil were 1,8-cineole, and β-pinene and camphor.6 Galangal, a member of the ginger (Zingiberaceae) family, interacts with MAO inhibitors, H2 receptor antagonists, and proton-pump inhibitors.¹ Anxiolytic, hallucinogenic, and stimulant properties have been reported.1 An excessive amount can induce diarrhea, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting.¹

Taking the spice route: Psychoactive properties of culinary spices

References

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