Evidence-Based Reviews

When does benign shyness become social anxiety, a treatable disorder?

Current Psychiatry. 2013 November;12(11):21-23, 35-38

The authors pinpoint the fine line between overdiagnosis and underdiagnosis of SAD.

References

1. Bruce LC, Coles ME, Heimberg RG. Social phobia and social anxiety disorder: effect of disorder name on recommendation for treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(5):538.

2. Bögels SM, Alden L, Beidel DC, et al. Social anxiety disorder: questions and answers for the DSM-V. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27:168-189.

3. Wakefield JC, Horwitz AV, Schmitz MF. Are we overpathologizing the socially anxious? Social phobia from a harmful dysfunction perspective. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50(6):317-319.

4. Campbell-Sills L, Stein MB. Justifying the diagnostic status of social phobia: a reply to Wakefield, Horwitz, and Schmitz. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50(6):320-323.

5. Scott S. The medicalisation of shyness: from social misfits to social fitness. Sociology of Health and Illness. 2006;28(2):133-153.

6. Wakefield JC. The DSM-5 debate over the bereavement exclusion: psychiatric diagnosis and the future of empirically supported treatment. Clin Psychol Rev. 2013; 33(7):825-845.

7. Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. Acceptance and commitment therapy: the process and practice of mindful change. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2012.

8. Kupfer DJ, First MB, Regier DA, eds. A research agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2002.

9. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.

10. Dalrymple KL, Zimmerman M. Does comorbid social anxiety disorder impact the clinical presentation of principal major depressive disorder? J Affect Disord. 2007;100:241-247.

11. Dalrymple KL. Issues and controversies surrounding the diagnosis and treatment of social anxiety disorder. Expert Rev Neurother. 2012;12(8):993-1008.

12. Furmark T, Tillfors M, Everz PO, et al. Social phobia in the general population: prevalence and sociodemographic profile. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1999;34:416-424.

13. Narrow WE, Rae DS, Robins LN, et al. Revised prevalence estimates of mental disorders in the United States: using a clinical significance criterion to reconcile 2 surveys’ estimates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:115-123.

14. Heiser NA, Turner SM, Beidel DC. Shyness: relationship to social phobia and other psychiatric disorders. Behav Res Ther. 2003;41:209-221.

15. Hofmann SG, Moscovitch DA, Hyo-Jin K. Autonomic correlates of social anxiety and embarrassment in shy and non-shy individuals. Int J Psychophysiology. 2006;61:134-142.

16. Kagan J. Temperamental contributions to affective and behavioral profiles in childhood. In: Hofmann SG, DiBartolo PM, eds. From social anxiety to social phobia: multiple perspectives. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon; 2001:216-234.

17. Cox BJ, MacPherson PS, Enns MW. Psychiatric correlates of childhood shyness in a nationally representative sample. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:1019-1027.

18. Burstein M, Ameli-Grillon L, Merikangas KR. Shyness versus social phobia in US youth. Pediatrics. 2011;128:917-925.

19. Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Micco J, Henin A, et al. Behavioral inhibition. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25:357-367.

20. Karevold E, Ystrom E, Coplan RJ, et al. A prospective longitudinal study of shyness from infancy to adolescence: stability, age-related changes, and prediction of socio-emotional functioning. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2012; 40:1167-1177.

21. Chavira DA, Stein MB, Malcarne VL. Scrutinizing the relationship between shyness and social phobia. J Anxiety Disord. 2002;16:585-598.

22. Schneier FR, Blanco C, Antia SX, et al. The social anxiety spectrum. Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2002;25:757-774.

23. Stein MB, Chavira DA, Jang KL. Bringing up bashful baby: developmental pathways to social phobia. Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2001;24:797-818.

24. Cooper PJ, Eke M. Childhood shyness and maternal social phobia: a community study. Br J Psychiatry. 1999;174:439-443.

25. Heiser NA, Turner SM, Beidel DC, et al. Differentiating social phobia from shyness. J Anxiety Disord. 2009;23:469-476.

26. Liebowitz MR. Social phobia. Mod Probl Pharmacopsychiatry. 1987;22:141-173.

27. Dalrymple, KL, Martinez J, Tepe E, et al. A clinically useful social anxiety disorder outcome scale. Compr Psychiatry. 2013;54(7):758-765.

28. Connor KM, Kobak KA, Churchill LE, et al. Mini-SPIN: a brief screening assessment for generalized social anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2001;14(2):137-140.

29. First MB, Gibbon M, Spitzer RL, et al. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II personality disorders (SCID-II). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc; 1997.

30. Conrad P. Medicalization and social control. Ann Rev Sociology. 1992;18:209-232.

31. Zimmerman M, Chelminski I. Clinician recognition of anxiety disorders in depressed outpatients. J Psychiatr Res. 2003;37:325-333.

32. Gelernter CS, Uhde TW, Cimbolic P, et al. Cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological treatments of social phobia: a controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48:938-945.

33. Otto MW, Smits JA, Reese HE. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(suppl 5):34-41.

34. Blanco C, Bragdon LB, Schneier FR, et al. The evidence-based pharmacotherapy of social anxiety disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;16:235-249.

Since the appearance of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in the DSM-III in 1980, research on its prevalence, characteristics, and treatment have grown (Box 1^1,2). In addition to the name, the definition of SAD has changed over the years; as a result, its prevalence has increased in recent cohort studies. This has led to debate over whether the experience of shyness is being over-pathologized, or whether SAD has been underdiagnosed in earlier decades. Those who argue that shyness is being over-pathologized note that it is a normal human experience that has evolutionary functions (eg, preventing engagement in harmful social relationships³). Others argue that a high degree of shyness is not beneficial in terms of evolution because it causes the individual to be shunned, so to speak, by society.⁴

Why worry about ‘over-pathologizing’?

The medicalization of shyness might be a reflection of Western societal values of assertiveness and gregariousness; other societies that value modesty and reticence do not over-pathologize shyness.⁵ It is important not to assume that someone who is shy necessarily has a “pathologic” level of social anxiety, especially because some people who are shy view that condition as a positive quality, much like sensitivity and conscientiousness.⁵

The broader issue of what constitutes a mental disorder arises in this debate. A “disorder” is a socially constructed label that describes a set of symptoms occurring together and its associated behaviors, not a real entity with etiological homogeneity.⁶ Labeling emotional problems “disordered” assumes that happiness is the natural homeostatic state, and distressing emotional states are abnormal and need to be changed.⁷ A diagnostic label can help improve communication and understand maladaptive behaviors; if that label is reified, however, it can lead to assumptions that the etiology, course, and treatment response are known. Proponents of the diagnostic psychiatric nomenclature have acknowledged the dangers of over-pathologizing normal experiences of living (such as fear) by way of diagnostic labeling.⁸

Determining when shyness becomes a clinically significant problem—what we call SAD here—demands a delicate distinction that has important implications for treatment. On one hand, if shyness is over-pathologized, persons who neither desire nor need treatment might be subjected to unnecessary and costly intervention. On the other hand, if SAD is underdiagnosed, some persons will not receive treatment that might be beneficial to them.

In this article, we review the similarities and differences between shyness and SAD, and provide recommendations for determining when shyness becomes a more clinically significant problem. We also highlight the importance of this distinction as it pertains to management, and provide suggestions for treatment approaches.

SAD: Definition, prevalence

SAD is defined as a significant fear of embarrassment or humiliation in social or performance-based situations, to a point at which the affected person often avoids these situations or endures them only with a high level of distress⁹ (Table 1, and Box 2). SAD can be distinguished from other anxiety disorders based on the source and content of the fear (ie, the source being social interaction or performance situations, and the content being a fear that one will show a behavior that will cause embarrassment). SAD also should be distinguished from autism spectrum disorders, in which persons have limited social communication capabilities and inadequate age-appropriate social relationships.

SAD is most highly comorbid with mood and anxiety disorders, with rates of at least 30% in clinical samples.¹⁰ The disorder also is highly comorbid with avoidant personality disorder—to a point at which it is argued that they are one and the same disorder.¹¹

As with other psychiatric disorders, anxiety must cause significant impairment or distress. What constitutes significant impairment or distress is subjective, and the arbitrary nature of this criterion can influence estimates of the prevalence of SAD. For example, prevalence ranges as widely as 1.9% to 20.4% when different cut-offs are used for distress ratings and the number of impaired domains.¹²

The prevalence of SAD varies from 1 epidemiological study to another (ie, the Epidemiological Catchment Area [ECA] Study and the National Comorbidity Survey [NCS])—in part, a consequence of the differing definitions of significant impairment or distress. The ECA study assessed the clinical significance of each symptom in anxiety disorders; the NCS assessed overall clinical significance of the disorder. When the clinical significance criterion was applied at the symptom level to the NCS dataset (as was done in the ECA study), 1-year prevalence decreased by 50% (from 7.4% to 3.7%).¹³ The manner in which significant impairment or distress is defined (ie, conservatively or liberally) impacts whether social anxiety symptoms are classified as disordered or non-disordered.